Upper intermediate Spanish
Develop more precise Spanish with 250 upper-intermediate words for society, culture, arguments, work, and abstract topics.
At B2, precision matters more than simply finding a correct word. This list helps you distinguish ideas, develop arguments, and discuss less concrete topics. Compare the Spanish example with its English meaning and pay attention to register.
Build nuanced arguments, challenge claims, and reach conclusions.
approach; line of argument
El planteamiento del informe parte de la premisa de que la vivienda es un derecho, no una mercancía.
The report's line of argument starts from the premise that housing is a right, not a commodity.
Usage note In argumentation, «planteamiento» is the way an issue or argument is framed; «el planteamiento de que...» introduces its central proposition.
thesis; central claim
La autora defiende la tesis de que reducir la jornada mejora la productividad.
The author defends the thesis that shortening the working week improves productivity.
Usage note The plural is unchanged: «una tesis / varias tesis». In academic debate, common collocations are «defender», «sostener» and «rechazar una tesis».
basis; grounds
El tribunal rechazó la acusación porque carecía de fundamento jurídico.
The court dismissed the accusation because it lacked a legal basis.
Usage note «Fundamento» names the supporting basis of a claim; «con fundamento» means with grounds, while «sin fundamento» means baselessly.
inference
Esa inferencia no se desprende de los datos: que dos hechos coincidan no prueba que uno cause el otro.
That inference does not follow from the data: the fact that two events coincide does not prove that one causes the other.
Usage note Use «hacer una inferencia» for a conclusion derived from evidence. It is narrower than «opinión», which need not follow from any stated facts.
conclusion
A partir de una muestra tan pequeña, no podemos llegar a una conclusión fiable.
On the basis of such a small sample, we cannot reach a reliable conclusion.
Usage note The usual collocations are «llegar a» and «sacar una conclusión». «En conclusión» is a discourse marker used to close an argument.
starting point
Nuestro punto de partida es que ninguna política pública puede evaluarse sin conocer sus objetivos.
Our starting point is that no public policy can be assessed without knowing its objectives.
Usage note In a debate, «punto de partida» states an initial assumption or shared basis, not a physical departure point. It often precedes «es que...».
reservation; objection
La oposición puso reparos al presupuesto porque no especificaba cómo se financiarían las ayudas.
The opposition raised objections to the budget because it did not specify how the aid would be funded.
Usage note «Poner reparos a» expresses reservations about a proposal and requires «a». In the plural, «sin reparos» means openly or without hesitation.
refutation
La refutación del artículo se apoya en experimentos que nadie había repetido hasta entonces.
The refutation of the article rests on experiments that no one had replicated until then.
Usage note A «refutación» does more than disagree: it offers reasons or evidence intended to prove a claim false. The usual pattern is «refutación de + noun».
line of reasoning
El ensayo aporta datos interesantes, pero pierde el hilo argumental al introducir tres temas secundarios.
The essay provides interesting data, but it loses its line of reasoning when it introduces three secondary topics.
Usage note «Hilo argumental» is the logical thread connecting the parts of an argument. «Perder el hilo» can also mean losing track while speaking or listening.
burden of proof
Si afirmas que el tratamiento funciona, la carga de la prueba recae sobre ti.
If you claim that the treatment works, the burden of proof rests with you.
Usage note This legal and argumentative expression identifies who must substantiate a claim. It commonly combines with «recaer sobre alguien».
to maintain; to argue
La investigadora sostiene que el aumento se debe a un cambio metodológico, no a una tendencia real.
The researcher maintains that the increase is due to a methodological change, not to a real trend.
Usage note In formal argumentation, «sostener que + clause» means to maintain a position. The verb follows the irregular conjugation of «tener»: «sostengo», «sostuvo».
to allege; to cite as an argument
La empresa alegó que el retraso se debía a circunstancias ajenas a su control.
The company claimed that the delay was due to circumstances beyond its control.
Usage note «Alegar que...» is formal and presents a reason or claim, often one not yet accepted as proven. The spelling changes to «alegue» before e.
to cast doubt on; to question
Las cifras revisadas ponen en duda la afirmación de que el programa haya reducido el abandono escolar.
The revised figures cast doubt on the claim that the program has reduced the school dropout rate.
Usage note The object follows directly: «poner en duda algo». When the questioned claim is introduced with «que», Spanish often uses the subjunctive.
to draw a conclusion
No saques conclusiones precipitadas antes de comparar los resultados de ambos grupos.
Do not jump to conclusions before comparing the results from both groups.
Usage note «Sacar conclusiones» is idiomatically 'draw conclusions'; with «precipitadas», English commonly uses 'jump to conclusions'. Do not translate «sacar» here as 'take out'.
to support; to substantiate
El informe respalda sus recomendaciones con datos recogidos durante más de una década.
The report supports its recommendations with data collected over more than a decade.
Usage note Use «respaldar algo con datos/pruebas» when evidence supports a claim. Unlike «apoyar a una persona», the thing supported takes no personal «a».
to contradict
El segundo testigo contradijo la versión según la cual nadie había entrado en el edificio.
The second witness contradicted the account according to which no one had entered the building.
Usage note «Contradecir» takes a direct object and means that two statements cannot both be true; it follows «decir» in «contradigo», «contradijo» and «contradicho».
to be based on
La propuesta se basa en la experiencia de municipios que ya aplicaron una medida semejante.
The proposal is based on the experience of municipalities that have already implemented a similar measure.
Usage note This verb is pronominal and keeps «en»: «basarse en hechos». «Basar algo en algo» is the transitive alternative: «Basaron la propuesta en...».
to be unfounded; to lack any basis
La acusación carece de fundamento, ya que ningún documento vincula al funcionario con el pago.
The accusation is unfounded, since no document links the official to the payment.
Usage note «Carecer de» is formal and always requires «de». The first-person and present subjunctive use «zc»: «carezco», «carezca».
persuasive
La portavoz fue persuasiva porque reconoció las dudas del público antes de presentar sus datos.
The spokesperson was persuasive because she acknowledged the audience's doubts before presenting her data.
Usage note «Persuasivo» describes language or a person capable of changing opinions. Unlike «convencido», it does not mean that the speaker is personally certain.
biased; partial
El análisis es parcial: cita todos los beneficios, pero omite los costes y los riesgos.
The analysis is biased: it cites all the benefits but omits the costs and risks.
Usage note For a judgment or account, «parcial» can mean biased, the opposite of «imparcial». In «un resultado parcial», however, it means incomplete or interim.
well-founded; well-supported
Aunque no comparto la propuesta, reconozco que está bien fundamentada y que merece debatirse.
Although I do not support the proposal, I recognize that it is well-founded and deserves to be debated.
Usage note The phrase evaluates the quality of the supporting reasons, not whether the listener agrees. «Bien» is invariable, while «fundamentado» agrees with the noun.
therefore
El reglamento no se aprobó a tiempo; por lo tanto, las normas anteriores siguen vigentes.
The regulations were not approved in time; therefore, the previous rules remain in force.
Usage note «Por lo tanto» introduces a consequence derived from what precedes it. It is normally set off by a comma and does not require the subjunctive.
despite that; nevertheless
El estudio presenta limitaciones importantes; pese a ello, sus resultados abren una vía de investigación útil.
The study has significant limitations; nevertheless, its results open up a useful avenue for research.
Usage note This connector concedes the preceding point before maintaining the main claim. «Ello» refers to the whole prior situation and is formal, not a person.
in short; in a few words
En pocas palabras, prohibir el acceso no resuelve el problema, sino que lo desplaza a otro barrio.
In short, banning access does not solve the problem; it merely shifts it to another neighborhood.
Usage note Use «en pocas palabras» to condense a longer argument into its essential point. It can introduce a blunt reformulation, so tone matters in formal debate.
to a certain extent
Estoy de acuerdo hasta cierto punto: la medida ahorra dinero, pero perjudica a las zonas rurales.
I agree to a certain extent: the measure saves money, but it harms rural areas.
Usage note This expression limits agreement or validity without rejecting a claim entirely. It commonly follows «estar de acuerdo» or qualifies an adjective.
Discuss institutions, rights, inequality, and collective responsibility.
procedural safeguards; due process protections
Toda persona acusada debe contar con garantías procesales, como el derecho a la defensa y a un juez imparcial.
Anyone accused of an offense must be afforded procedural safeguards, such as the right to a defense and an impartial judge.
Usage note This legal expression covers protections that make judicial proceedings fair. It is normally plural and combines with «contar con» or «respetar».
equal opportunity
Las becas buscan garantizar la igualdad de oportunidades entre estudiantes de distintos niveles de renta.
The scholarships aim to ensure equal opportunity among students from different income levels.
Usage note The fixed phrase uses «de oportunidades» and refers to fair access at the outset, not necessarily equal results. Common verbs are «garantizar» and «promover».
freedom of expression; freedom of speech
La libertad de expresión protege las críticas al Gobierno, aunque no convierte las amenazas en opiniones legítimas.
Freedom of expression protects criticism of the government, although it does not turn threats into legitimate opinions.
Usage note This is the standard legal term and is broader than spoken speech. It is often discussed with limits introduced by «no ampara...» or «está sujeta a...».
access to housing
El aumento de los alquileres dificulta el acceso a la vivienda de quienes tienen empleos temporales.
The rise in rents makes access to housing more difficult for people in temporary employment.
Usage note «Acceso» requires «a»: «acceso a la vivienda». Here «vivienda» means housing as a social need, so English normally uses no article before 'housing'.
civic participation; public participation
El ayuntamiento abrió una consulta para fomentar la participación ciudadana en el diseño del nuevo parque.
The city council opened a consultation to encourage public participation in the design of the new park.
Usage note The phrase refers to citizens taking part in public decisions, not merely holding citizenship. «Participación» is followed by «en» for the activity.
social protection; the social safety net
Una red sólida de protección social evita que una enfermedad grave empuje a una familia a la pobreza.
A strong social safety net prevents a serious illness from pushing a family into poverty.
Usage note This policy term includes benefits and services that protect people from economic hardship. It is broader than «seguridad social», which often names a specific system.
social cohesion
La segregación escolar debilita la cohesión social al separar desde la infancia a grupos que apenas conviven.
School segregation weakens social cohesion by keeping groups that rarely interact apart from childhood onward.
Usage note «Cohesión social» concerns trust, belonging and ties within a society. It is not a synonym for unanimity; cohesive groups may still disagree.
inclusion
La inclusión del alumnado con discapacidad exige adaptar tanto el edificio como los materiales didácticos.
The inclusion of students with disabilities requires adapting both the building and the teaching materials.
Usage note «Inclusión de + group» stresses removing barriers so people can participate. Unlike assimilation, it does not imply abandoning one's identity.
civic responsibility
Pagar los impuestos debidos es una responsabilidad cívica porque permite financiar servicios que todos utilizamos.
Paying the taxes owed is a civic responsibility because it helps fund services that everyone uses.
Usage note The expression refers to duties toward the community, whether legally enforceable or ethical. «Cívica» agrees with «responsabilidad», not with the person.
the common good
El debate consiste en decidir cuándo el bien común justifica limitar determinados intereses privados.
The debate is about deciding when the common good justifies limiting certain private interests.
Usage note «El bien común» is the welfare shared by the community. Do not confuse it with «los bienes comunes», which can mean shared resources or common assets.
to exercise a right
Los trabajadores ejercieron su derecho a la huelga después de que fracasaran las negociaciones.
The workers exercised their right to strike after the negotiations broke down.
Usage note The legal collocation is «ejercer un derecho», not *«practicar un derecho». The first-person and present subjunctive change c to z: «ejerzo», «ejerza».
to assert; to enforce
La inquilina acudió a una asociación para hacer valer sus derechos frente al propietario.
The tenant went to an association to assert her rights against the landlord.
Usage note «Hacer valer un derecho» means actively ensuring that it is recognized or respected. Both verbs remain together; only «hacer» is conjugated.
to protect; to uphold
La ley ampara a quienes denuncian irregularidades de buena fe y prohíbe las represalias.
The law protects people who report wrongdoing in good faith and prohibits retaliation.
Usage note In legal register, a law «ampara a una persona» or «ampara un derecho». Use the personal «a» for protected people, but not for rights or conduct.
to safeguard; to look after
El defensor del pueblo debe velar por que la administración respete los derechos de la ciudadanía.
The ombudsman must ensure that the public administration respects citizens' rights.
Usage note «Velar por algo/alguien» means to protect it. Before a clause, use «velar por que» as three words; an intended outcome normally takes the subjunctive.
to hold someone accountable
Las familias exigen responsabilidades a las autoridades por no haber activado la alerta a tiempo.
The families are holding the authorities accountable for failing to issue the warning in time.
Usage note The pattern is «exigir responsabilidades a alguien por algo». English usually uses 'hold accountable', not the literal 'demand responsibilities'.
to report; to denounce
Varias empleadas denunciaron el acoso ante la inspección de trabajo y aportaron mensajes como prueba.
Several employees reported the harassment to the labor inspectorate and submitted messages as evidence.
Usage note «Denunciar algo ante una autoridad» means formally report it; «denunciar públicamente» means expose or condemn it. A person reported to police takes personal «a».
to be left out; to be excluded
Quienes no dispongan de conexión a internet quedarán excluidos del trámite si no se ofrece una alternativa presencial.
People without an internet connection will be excluded from the process if an in-person alternative is not offered.
Usage note «Quedar excluido de» focuses on the resulting state and requires «de». The participle agrees with the excluded person or group.
to have a say; to have a voice
Las comunidades afectadas reclaman tener voz en las decisiones sobre la explotación del territorio.
The affected communities are demanding a say in decisions about the use of the land.
Usage note Figurative «tener voz en» means being able to influence a decision, not merely being allowed to speak. «Voz» normally remains singular in this expression.
to comply with; to fulfill
El centro deberá cumplir con las normas de accesibilidad antes de volver a abrir al público.
The center will have to comply with the accessibility standards before reopening to the public.
Usage note Use «cumplir con una norma, obligación o requisito». With goals or ages, Spanish usually omits «con»: «cumplir un objetivo», «cumplir veinte años».
accessible
La información pública debe ser accesible para las personas con discapacidad visual y para quienes no dominan el idioma.
Public information must be accessible to people with visual impairments and to those who are not proficient in the language.
Usage note «Accesible para alguien» concerns practical access; «accesible a alguien» can also mean approachable. The adjective has the same form for both genders.
egalitarian; promoting equality
Un permiso parental igualitario concede el mismo tiempo de cuidado a ambos progenitores.
An equal parental leave policy grants both parents the same amount of caregiving leave.
Usage note «Igualitario» describes a system designed around equality; «igual» merely means the same or equal. The adjective changes for gender and number.
disadvantaged
El programa reserva plazas para jóvenes de entornos desfavorecidos que no podrían pagar la matrícula.
The program reserves places for young people from disadvantaged backgrounds who could not afford the tuition fees.
Usage note This neutral policy term usually modifies «grupo», «barrio» or «entorno». It indicates structural disadvantage and should not be used as a blanket label for a person.
regardless of
Toda persona recibirá atención de urgencia con independencia de su situación administrativa.
Every person will receive emergency care regardless of their immigration status.
Usage note In formal rules, this phrase means that a factor does not affect eligibility. It is followed by a noun or pronoun and is more formal than «sin importar».
in defense of; in support of
Miles de personas se manifestaron en defensa de la sanidad pública y contra el cierre de los centros rurales.
Thousands of people demonstrated in defense of public health care and against the closure of rural clinics.
Usage note The expression introduces the cause or institution being protected: «actuar en defensa de algo/alguien». It contrasts naturally with «en contra de».
unless
La protesta será legítima a no ser que vulnere los derechos de quienes no participan en ella.
The protest will be legitimate unless it infringes the rights of those who do not take part in it.
Usage note «A no ser que» introduces the exception that would prevent the main clause from applying and normally requires the subjunctive.
Explain markets, organizational choices, and financial consequences.
profit
La cooperativa reinvirtió el beneficio anual en renovar la maquinaria.
The cooperative reinvested its annual profit in upgrading the machinery.
Usage note In business, «beneficio» is the money left after costs; outside finance it also means a benefit or advantage. «Obtener beneficios» is a common collocation.
loss
El cierre de dos tiendas ocasionó una pérdida considerable este trimestre.
The closure of two stores caused a considerable loss this quarter.
Usage note Financial statements use «pérdidas» for negative results, often in the fixed contrast «beneficios y pérdidas». The accent distinguishes the noun from forms of «perder».
turnover; sales volume
Nuestro volumen de negocio creció al entrar en tres mercados latinoamericanos.
Our turnover grew when we entered three Latin American markets.
Usage note «Volumen de negocio» refers to the value of a company's sales, not its profit. In British business English, 'turnover' is the usual equivalent.
cost
El coste del transporte representa casi un tercio del precio final.
Transport costs account for almost a third of the final price.
Usage note «Coste» is standard in Spain, while «costo» is more widespread in Latin America. Business combinations include «coste fijo», «coste variable» and «reducir costes».
margin; profit margin
El aumento de la materia prima redujo nuestro margen de beneficio.
The rise in raw material prices reduced our profit margin.
Usage note In commerce, «margen» is the difference between revenue and cost. It is masculine in this meaning: «un margen estrecho».
supplier; provider
Cambiamos de proveedor porque las entregas llegaban con retraso.
We changed suppliers because deliveries kept arriving late.
Usage note A «proveedor» supplies goods or services to a business. The pattern «cambiar de proveedor» uses «de», while «proveedor de» identifies what is supplied.
workforce; staff
La empresa ampliará la plantilla para atender los nuevos contratos.
The company will expand its workforce to handle the new contracts.
Usage note In employment contexts, «plantilla» means the entire workforce, not an individual employee. It can also mean a template in office software.
bankruptcy; business failure
La falta de liquidez llevó a la compañía a la quiebra.
The lack of liquidity drove the company into bankruptcy.
Usage note «Ir a la quiebra» describes a business failure; «declararse en quiebra» is the formal legal action. Do not confuse it with the verb «quebrar», to break.
foreign trade
El comercio exterior se vio afectado por las nuevas restricciones aduaneras.
Foreign trade was affected by the new customs restrictions.
Usage note «Comercio exterior» covers imports and exports between countries. «Exterior» follows the noun and does not mean outdoor in this economic expression.
supply chain
Una huelga portuaria interrumpió la cadena de suministro durante una semana.
A port strike disrupted the supply chain for a week.
Usage note This expression covers the sequence from raw materials to delivery. Common verbs are «interrumpir», «diversificar» and «optimizar la cadena de suministro».
to undertake; to start a venture
Tras años en el sector, Lucía emprendió un negocio de consultoría ambiental.
After years in the industry, Lucía started an environmental consulting business.
Usage note «Emprender» means to begin a demanding project or business. It takes a direct object: «emprender una actividad», not «emprender en una actividad».
to attract; to secure
La empresa emergente intenta captar capital sin ceder el control del proyecto.
The start-up is trying to secure capital without giving up control of the project.
Usage note In business, «captar» commonly combines with «clientes», «fondos», «capital» or «talento» and means to attract or obtain them.
to distribute
Un socio local distribuye nuestros productos en toda la región andina.
A local partner distributes our products throughout the Andean region.
Usage note The spelling includes «y» in forms such as «distribuyo» and «distribuye». The pattern «distribuir algo entre» focuses on allocation among recipients.
to acquire; to purchase
El grupo adquirió una fábrica para aumentar su capacidad de producción.
The group acquired a factory to increase its production capacity.
Usage note «Adquirir» is more formal than «comprar» and is frequent in corporate transactions. Its present stem changes from «i» to «ie»: «adquiero».
to merge
Las dos aseguradoras acordaron fusionarse para competir en el extranjero.
The two insurance companies agreed to merge in order to compete abroad.
Usage note Companies «se fusionan con» one another. The pronominal form emphasizes that separate entities combine, while «fusionar dos departamentos» is transitive.
to outsource; to subcontract
Decidieron subcontratar el mantenimiento informático a una empresa especializada.
They decided to outsource IT maintenance to a specialist company.
Usage note Use «subcontratar un servicio a una empresa» when an outside provider performs it. For a person hired through another company, use «personal subcontratado».
to pay off; to amortize
Esperan amortizar la inversión inicial antes de cuatro años.
They expect to recoup the initial investment within four years.
Usage note «Amortizar» can mean gradually paying off a loan or recovering the cost of an investment. The intended meaning depends on its object.
to expand
La marca se expandió por el Caribe mediante franquicias.
The brand expanded across the Caribbean through franchises.
Usage note A business «se expande por» a territory or «a» a new market. The transitive form «expandir la red» names what is made larger.
competitive
Para seguir siendo competitiva, la fábrica debe reducir el consumo energético.
To remain competitive, the factory must reduce its energy consumption.
Usage note For a company or price, «competitivo» means able to compete effectively. For a person, it can also describe a strong desire to win.
viable; feasible
El proyecto solo será viable si consigue suficientes suscriptores.
The project will only be viable if it gains enough subscribers.
Usage note «Viable» describes a plan or business that can succeed in practice or financially. It has the same form for masculine and feminine nouns.
wholesale; wholesaler
La empresa vende café a precio mayorista, no directamente al consumidor.
The company sells coffee at a wholesale price, not directly to consumers.
Usage note «Mayorista» describes large-scale sales to retailers and can also be a noun for the seller. It is gender-invariable: «el mayorista / la mayorista».
retail; retailer
El sector minorista registró menos ventas después de las fiestas.
The retail sector recorded fewer sales after the holiday season.
Usage note «Minorista» refers to selling directly to the final consumer and contrasts with «mayorista». As a noun, it can refer to a retailer.
looking ahead; for the future
De cara al futuro, la compañía pretende depender menos de un solo mercado.
Looking ahead, the company aims to depend less on a single market.
Usage note This expression frames a plan or consideration from a future perspective. It usually appears at the beginning or end of a clause, set off by a comma.
consequently; therefore
El principal cliente canceló el pedido; por consiguiente, habrá que revisar las previsiones.
The main client canceled the order; consequently, the forecasts will have to be revised.
Usage note «Por consiguiente» introduces a logical consequence and is more formal than «por eso». It is normally separated by commas or follows a semicolon.
in terms of
La segunda oferta es más atractiva en términos de estabilidad financiera.
The second offer is more attractive in terms of financial stability.
Usage note Use «en términos de + noun» to specify the criterion used for comparison or evaluation. Avoid it when a simpler preposition expresses the relation clearly.
Analyze coverage, sources, persuasion, and misinformation.
source
El periodista protegió la identidad de la fuente que le entregó los documentos.
The journalist protected the identity of the source who gave him the documents.
Usage note In journalism, «fuente» is a person, document or institution that provides information. «Fuentes cercanas a...» often signals an unnamed source.
lead; introductory paragraph
La entradilla resume quién tomó la decisión y por qué resulta polémica.
The lead summarizes who made the decision and why it is controversial.
Usage note In a news article, the «entradilla» is the short introduction following the headline. It presents the most important facts before the full account.
bias; partiality
La omisión de voces críticas revela la parcialidad del reportaje.
The omission of critical voices reveals the report's bias.
Usage note «Parcialidad» is a lack of neutrality in judgment or reporting. The opposite is «imparcialidad», and the common pattern is «mostrar parcialidad hacia».
speculation
Ante la ausencia de datos oficiales, la especulación se extendió por las redes.
In the absence of official data, speculation spread across social media.
Usage note In information contexts, «especulación» is an unconfirmed theory rather than a verified fact. It often appears with «evitar», «alimentar» or «dar pie a».
exclusive story; scoop
El diario publicó la exclusiva después de verificar cientos de correos.
The newspaper published the scoop after verifying hundreds of emails.
Usage note A journalistic «exclusiva» is important information obtained by one outlet before its competitors. As an adjective, «exclusivo» has broader meanings.
information leak
La fiscalía investiga una fuga de información que comprometió el operativo.
The prosecutor's office is investigating an information leak that compromised the operation.
Usage note «Fuga de información» describes confidential material reaching unauthorized people. «Filtración» is a close synonym, especially when the disclosure is deliberate.
false news story; fake news item
La fotografía manipulada convirtió una protesta pacífica en una noticia falsa.
The manipulated photograph turned a peaceful protest into a false news story.
Usage note «Noticia falsa» refers to an inaccurate or fabricated news item. «Bulo» often implies deliberate deception and can circulate outside formal media.
media outlet; medium of communication
Cada medio de comunicación eligió una imagen distinta para abrir la noticia.
Each media outlet chose a different image to lead with the story.
Usage note The plural «los medios de comunicación» refers collectively to press, radio, television and digital outlets. Singular «medio» identifies one channel or outlet.
freedom of the press
Las asociaciones denunciaron que la nueva ley amenaza la libertad de prensa.
The associations warned that the new law threatens freedom of the press.
Usage note «Libertad de prensa» is the right of journalists and outlets to report without improper censorship or interference. It commonly combines with «defender» and «amenazar».
right to information
El tribunal antepuso el derecho a la información al deseo de privacidad del funcionario.
The court placed the right to information above the official's desire for privacy.
Usage note The construction is «derecho a + noun/infinitive». In public debate, this right may be balanced against privacy, security or confidentiality.
to verify; to fact-check
Antes de compartir el vídeo, verifica la fecha y el lugar de grabación.
Before sharing the video, verify the date and place where it was recorded.
Usage note «Verificar» means to establish accuracy through evidence. The spelling changes from «c» to «qu» before e: «verifique».
to manipulate; to tamper with
Alguien manipuló el audio para que la respuesta pareciera más agresiva.
Someone manipulated the audio to make the answer sound more aggressive.
Usage note With media, «manipular» means altering material or presenting it deceptively. It can also refer to influencing a person unfairly.
to report; to inform about
La emisora informó de varios cortes de carretera antes del amanecer.
The radio station reported several road closures before dawn.
Usage note In Spain, «informar de/sobre algo» reports a subject. To notify a person, use «informar a alguien de algo».
to reveal; to disclose
La investigación reveló vínculos financieros que no figuraban en el registro público.
The investigation revealed financial ties that did not appear in the public register.
Usage note «Revelar» introduces previously hidden or unknown information. In journalism, its subject can be a person, document, inquiry or piece of evidence.
to omit; to leave out
El artículo omitió que la empresa había financiado parte del estudio.
The article omitted the fact that the company had funded part of the study.
Usage note «Omitir» is more formal than «dejar fuera» and takes a direct object or «que + clause». An omission may be accidental or deliberate.
to go viral
El fragmento se viralizó sin el contexto necesario para entender la discusión.
The clip went viral without the context needed to understand the discussion.
Usage note The pronominal «viralizarse» means to spread rapidly online. Transitive «viralizar un contenido» focuses on making content spread.
to attribute
Varias cuentas atribuyeron la frase a la ministra, pero nunca la pronunció.
Several accounts attributed the quote to the minister, but she never said it.
Usage note Use «atribuir algo a alguien» for assigning authorship, cause or responsibility. «Atribuirse algo» means to claim it for oneself.
to put into context; to contextualize
La corresponsal contextualizó las cifras comparándolas con las de años anteriores.
The correspondent put the figures into context by comparing them with those from previous years.
Usage note «Contextualizar» means adding the circumstances needed to interpret information accurately. It is especially useful with quotations, images and statistics.
reliable; trustworthy
El documental ofrece un relato fidedigno respaldado por archivos judiciales.
The documentary provides a reliable account supported by court records.
Usage note «Fidedigno» describes information or testimony worthy of trust because it corresponds closely to the facts. It is more formal than «fiable».
misleading; deceptive
El gráfico es engañoso porque el eje vertical no comienza en cero.
The graph is misleading because the vertical axis does not start at zero.
Usage note «Engañoso» describes something that creates a false impression, whether intentionally or not. It frequently modifies «titular», «imagen», «dato» and «publicidad».
viral
Un contenido viral puede alcanzar a millones de personas en pocas horas.
Viral content can reach millions of people in just a few hours.
Usage note Online, «viral» means spreading very quickly through sharing. It is gender-invariable but takes plural «virales».
anonymous
El periódico recibió una denuncia anónima con datos que luego pudo confirmar.
The newspaper received an anonymous tip containing information it was later able to confirm.
Usage note «Anónimo» means that a person's identity is not disclosed. A source may remain anonymous publicly while still being known to the journalist.
allegedly; purportedly
El dinero fue transferido presuntamente a través de varias empresas ficticias.
The money was allegedly transferred through several shell companies.
Usage note Journalists use «presuntamente» when an allegation has not been legally or independently proven. It avoids presenting suspicion as established fact.
according to
Según el informe forense, la imagen había sido editada meses antes.
According to the forensic report, the image had been edited months earlier.
Usage note «Según + source» attributes information without necessarily endorsing it. Before a clause it can also mean depending on: «según avance la investigación».
as a result of; following
A raíz de la denuncia, otros testigos decidieron hablar con la prensa.
Following the complaint, other witnesses decided to speak to the press.
Usage note «A raíz de + noun» presents an event as the trigger or origin of a later development. It is common in news reports and formal narration.
Discuss leadership, performance, conflict, and organizational change.
management team; executive team
El equipo directivo explicó la reestructuración en una reunión abierta.
The management team explained the restructuring at an open meeting.
Usage note «Equipo directivo» refers collectively to people who manage an organization. Depending on context, English may use management team, leadership team or executive team.
decision-making
La nueva estructura acerca la toma de decisiones a los equipos locales.
The new structure brings decision-making closer to local teams.
Usage note This phrase names the process of choosing among alternatives. It is usually singular even though «decisiones» is plural.
management position; executive role
Aceptó el puesto directivo después de negociar un horario flexible.
She accepted the management position after negotiating flexible hours.
Usage note A «puesto directivo» involves managerial responsibility. «Directivo» here does not mean a directive; as a noun, «un directivo» means an executive.
staff turnover; employee turnover
La rotación de personal disminuyó cuando mejoraron las oportunidades de promoción.
Staff turnover fell when promotion opportunities improved.
Usage note «Rotación de personal» measures how frequently employees leave and are replaced. It does not refer to rotating workstations or shifts.
workplace climate; work environment
Una comunicación transparente contribuyó a mejorar el clima laboral.
Transparent communication helped improve the workplace climate.
Usage note «Clima laboral» is employees' shared perception of relationships and conditions at work. It is more specific than the physical «entorno de trabajo».
performance appraisal; performance review
La evaluación del desempeño tendrá en cuenta resultados y capacidad de colaboración.
The performance review will take both results and the ability to collaborate into account.
Usage note This formal HR term assesses how an employee carries out a role. «Desempeño» here means job performance, not effort alone.
incentive
El bono funciona como incentivo para superar los objetivos de calidad.
The bonus acts as an incentive to exceed the quality targets.
Usage note An «incentivo» encourages a behavior and may be financial or nonfinancial. Common patterns are «incentivo para + infinitive» and «servir de incentivo».
sick leave; medical leave
Solicitó la baja laboral mientras se recuperaba de la operación.
She requested medical leave while recovering from the operation.
Usage note In Spain, «baja laboral» is officially authorized absence due to illness or injury. Usage and legal arrangements vary across Spanish-speaking countries.
replacement; succession; handover
La subdirectora tomará el relevo cuando el fundador se jubile.
The deputy director will take over when the founder retires.
Usage note «Tomar el relevo» means taking over someone's duties or leadership. The image comes from passing the baton in a relay race.
to lead
Marta lideró la transición sin ocultar las dificultades al equipo.
Marta led the transition without hiding the difficulties from the team.
Usage note «Liderar» takes a direct object such as «un equipo», «un proyecto» or «un cambio». It implies guiding, not merely occupying the highest position.
to motivate
Reconocer las aportaciones individuales motivó al grupo más que el premio económico.
Recognizing individual contributions motivated the group more than the financial reward did.
Usage note «Motivar a alguien a + infinitive» encourages action; «estar motivado para» describes readiness. «Motivar» can also formally mean to provide reasons for a decision.
to settle; to resolve decisively
Una conversación directa permitió zanjar el desacuerdo sobre las responsabilidades.
A direct conversation made it possible to settle the disagreement over responsibilities.
Usage note «Zanjar un asunto/conflicto» means resolving it conclusively so it no longer remains open. It is stronger than merely discussing or managing it.
to prioritize
Ante la falta de recursos, priorizamos las tareas con mayor impacto.
Given the lack of resources, we prioritized the tasks with the greatest impact.
Usage note «Priorizar» means assigning greater importance or urgency. It takes a direct object and can be followed by «frente a» to contrast two options.
to reorganize
La directora reorganizó los turnos para evitar horas extra innecesarias.
The manager reorganized the shifts to avoid unnecessary overtime.
Usage note «Reorganizar» changes the structure or arrangement of work. Before e, the spelling changes from «z» to «c»: «reorganice».
to take command; to take charge
El responsable regional asumió el mando durante la ausencia de la directora.
The regional manager took charge during the director's absence.
Usage note This expression marks taking authority and responsibility for directing others. «Mando» remains singular in the usual fixed phrase.
to meet targets; to achieve objectives
El departamento cumplió sus objetivos sin rebasar el límite de gastos.
The department met its targets without exceeding the spending limit.
Usage note With plans and performance targets, «cumplir un objetivo» means achieving it. The objective normally takes no preposition.
to perform; to be productive
Nadie rinde bien durante semanas si recibe mensajes de trabajo a medianoche.
No one performs well for weeks if they receive work messages at midnight.
Usage note In work contexts, «rendir» means producing an expected result or performing effectively. «Rendirse» is a different pronominal verb meaning to give up.
resourceful; solution-oriented
Buscamos a alguien resolutivo que actúe con calma ante los imprevistos.
We are looking for someone resourceful who responds calmly to unexpected problems.
Usage note A «persona resolutiva» identifies problems and acts effectively to solve them. The closest English equivalent depends on context: resourceful, decisive or solution-oriented.
flexible; adaptable
Un jefe flexible ajusta el plan cuando cambian las circunstancias.
A flexible manager adjusts the plan when circumstances change.
Usage note At work, «flexible» can describe schedules, rules or a person's willingness to adapt. It has one form for masculine and feminine.
effective
La reunión fue eficaz porque terminó con responsables y plazos concretos.
The meeting was effective because it ended with clear owners and deadlines.
Usage note «Eficaz» means achieving the intended result. Contrast «eficiente», which emphasizes doing so with minimal time or resources.
demanding; exacting
Es una supervisora exigente, pero nunca pide algo que ella no haría.
She is a demanding supervisor, but she never asks for anything she would not do herself.
Usage note «Exigente» may describe a person who sets high standards or a task requiring great effort. It is gender-invariable.
collaborative
El proceso colaborativo permitió que cada área señalara sus necesidades.
The collaborative process allowed each department to identify its needs.
Usage note «Colaborativo» describes a method based on active cooperation. In workplace Spanish, «entorno colaborativo» and «trabajo colaborativo» are common combinations.
by mutual agreement
Las partes modificaron el calendario de mutuo acuerdo.
The parties changed the schedule by mutual agreement.
Usage note This expression states that everyone involved consented to a decision. It commonly follows verbs such as «decidir», «modificar» and «rescindir».
on condition that; provided that
Aprobaron el teletrabajo con la condición de que el equipo acudiera los jueves.
They approved remote work on condition that the team came in on Thursdays.
Usage note This connector introduces a requirement and normally triggers the subjunctive because the condition is prospective or hypothetical.
even when; even though
La responsable escucha las críticas aun cuando no comparte el diagnóstico.
The manager listens to criticism even when she does not share the assessment.
Usage note Use the indicative for a known fact and the subjunctive for a hypothetical concession. In this expression, «aun» means even and is written without an accent.
Express complex reactions, judgments, and psychological processes.
mood
Dormir mal altera mi estado de ánimo durante todo el día.
Sleeping badly affects my mood throughout the day.
Usage note «Estado de ánimo» is a relatively lasting emotional condition, unlike a brief reaction. Common verbs are «alterar», «mejorar» and «reflejar».
uncertainty
La incertidumbre sobre el diagnóstico le impedía hacer planes.
The uncertainty surrounding the diagnosis kept her from making plans.
Usage note «Incertidumbre sobre/acerca de» expresses lack of certainty about an outcome or fact. The singular often describes the general feeling.
disappointment
No pudo ocultar su decepción al conocer el resultado de la beca.
He could not hide his disappointment when he learned the scholarship result.
Usage note «Decepción» is the feeling produced when expectations are not met. «Llevarse una decepción» means to be disappointed by an outcome.
relief
Sintió un enorme alivio cuando confirmaron que nadie estaba herido.
She felt enormous relief when they confirmed that no one was injured.
Usage note «Alivio» is the easing of worry, pain or burden. Emotional usage often combines with «sentir» and the exclamation «¡Qué alivio!».
shame; embarrassment
Por vergüenza, evitó admitir que no había entendido las instrucciones.
Out of embarrassment, he avoided admitting that he had not understood the instructions.
Usage note «Vergüenza» ranges from social embarrassment to moral shame. «Dar vergüenza» describes what embarrasses you; «tener vergüenza» can imply decency.
nostalgia; homesickness
La canción le provocó nostalgia por los veranos de su infancia.
The song made her nostalgic for the summers of her childhood.
Usage note «Nostalgia de/por» is a bittersweet longing for a past time, place or person. In migration contexts it may overlap with homesickness.
self-confidence
Hablar en público le ayudó a recuperar la confianza en sí misma.
Public speaking helped her regain her self-confidence.
Usage note The reflexive element agrees with the person: «en mí mismo/a», «en ti mismo/a», «en sí mismo/a». It describes trust in one's own abilities or judgment.
emotional exhaustion
Cuidar a todos sin pedir ayuda terminó causándole agotamiento emocional.
Caring for everyone without asking for help eventually caused her emotional exhaustion.
Usage note «Agotamiento emocional» is a sustained depletion of emotional energy, often associated with stress or burnout. It is stronger than temporary tiredness.
inner conflict; internal contradiction
Sentía una contradicción interna entre buscar seguridad y cambiar de vida.
She felt an inner conflict between seeking security and changing her life.
Usage note This expression describes incompatible desires, beliefs or values within one person. For arguments, «contradicción» may instead identify logical inconsistency.
to reflect; to think carefully
Necesito reflexionar sobre lo ocurrido antes de responderle.
I need to reflect on what happened before replying to him.
Usage note «Reflexionar sobre/acerca de algo» means considering it deliberately and in depth. Unlike «pensar en», it emphasizes careful examination.
to doubt
Después de tantos rechazos, empezó a dudar de su propio criterio.
After so many rejections, he began to doubt his own judgment.
Usage note Use «dudar de + noun/pronoun» but usually «dudar que + subjunctive» before a clause. «No dudar en + infinitive» means not hesitating to act.
to feel overwhelmed
Se sintió abrumada por la cantidad de decisiones que debía tomar sola.
She felt overwhelmed by the number of decisions she had to make alone.
Usage note The adjective agrees with the person, and the cause normally follows «por». It can describe excessive pressure, emotion or sensory input.
to restrain oneself; to hold back
Tuvo que contenerse para no interrumpir mientras escuchaba la acusación.
He had to restrain himself from interrupting while listening to the accusation.
Usage note «Contenerse para no + infinitive» means controlling an impulse or reaction. It follows the irregular conjugation of «tener»: «contengo», «contuvo».
to become obsessed with
Se obsesionó con evitar cualquier error y acabó revisándolo todo tres veces.
He became obsessed with avoiding any mistake and ended up checking everything three times.
Usage note This pronominal verb keeps «con» before its focus. It implies that a thought or goal occupies the mind excessively.
to resign oneself to; to accept reluctantly
No se resignó a perder el contacto y siguió escribiendo cartas.
She refused to resign herself to losing touch and kept writing letters.
Usage note «Resignarse a + noun/infinitive» means reluctantly accepting an unpleasant situation as unavoidable. It is not the usual verb for quitting a job.
to distrust; to be suspicious of
Desconfía de los elogios exagerados porque suelen ocultar una petición.
She is suspicious of exaggerated praise because it often conceals a request.
Usage note «Desconfiar de» requires «de» before a person, thing or intention. The written accent in «desconfío» preserves the stressed «í».
to become aware of
Al escuchar a los demás, tomó conciencia de cómo sus palabras habían dolido.
By listening to the others, he became aware of how much his words had hurt.
Usage note This expression marks a process of recognizing or fully understanding something, not merely receiving information. It always retains «de».
perplexed; baffled
Me quedé perplejo al ver que celebraban una decisión tan arriesgada.
I was baffled to see them celebrating such a risky decision.
Usage note «Perplejo» expresses puzzled surprise when something is difficult to understand. It commonly follows «estar» or «quedarse».
overwhelming
La respuesta del público fue abrumadora: recibieron miles de mensajes en una hora.
The public response was overwhelming: they received thousands of messages in one hour.
Usage note «Abrumador» describes an amount, feeling or response so intense that it is hard to manage. It can be positive or negative depending on context.
impulsive
Su mensaje impulsivo empeoró una discusión que ya empezaba a calmarse.
His impulsive message made an argument that was already calming down worse.
Usage note «Impulsivo» describes actions taken without sufficient reflection or a person prone to them. It does not necessarily mean energetic.
calm; composed
Aunque estaba preocupado, mantuvo un tono sereno durante la conversación.
Although he was worried, he maintained a calm tone throughout the conversation.
Usage note «Sereno» emphasizes emotional composure and clear judgment, not merely silence. Common combinations include «mantenerse sereno» and «tono sereno».
touchy; easily offended
Está tan susceptible últimamente que interpreta cualquier comentario como una crítica.
He has been so touchy lately that he interprets every comment as criticism.
Usage note For a person, «susceptible» often means easily offended. In formal «ser susceptible de + infinitive», it instead means capable of or liable to.
deep down; fundamentally
En el fondo, sabía que su enfado no tenía que ver con aquel comentario.
Deep down, she knew that her anger had nothing to do with that comment.
Usage note In psychological contexts, «en el fondo» introduces a deeper feeling or truth beneath appearances. It can also mean fundamentally in an argument.
without realizing it; unknowingly
Sin darse cuenta, repetía los mismos gestos que tanto le molestaban de su padre.
Without realizing it, he repeated the same gestures that annoyed him so much in his father.
Usage note The reflexive pronoun changes with the subject: «sin darme cuenta», «sin darte cuenta». The expression marks a lack of conscious awareness.
despite everything; nevertheless
La despedida fue dolorosa; a pesar de todo, sintió que había tomado la decisión correcta.
The farewell was painful; despite everything, she felt she had made the right decision.
Usage note This connector acknowledges all preceding difficulties before presenting a contrasting outcome. Unlike «a pesar de que», it is not followed by a clause.
Discuss research methods, digital systems, and how technology is developed and assessed.
precision; accuracy
La precisión del reloj permite medir diferencias de una milésima de segundo.
The clock's precision makes it possible to measure differences of one thousandth of a second.
Usage note «Precisión» refers to exactness; in measurement contexts, it often appears with «grado de» or «margen de precisión».
margin of error
La encuesta tiene un margen de error de dos puntos porcentuales.
The survey has a margin of error of two percentage points.
Usage note The plural of «margen» is «márgenes». Use «un margen de error de + amount» to quantify uncertainty.
protocol; procedure
El laboratorio modificó el protocolo para evitar que las muestras se contaminaran.
The laboratory changed the protocol to prevent the samples from becoming contaminated.
Usage note In research, «protocolo» is an agreed sequence of procedures, not merely a rule of etiquette.
device
Este dispositivo registra el ritmo cardíaco y envía los datos al teléfono.
This device records the heart rate and sends the data to the phone.
Usage note «Dispositivo» is a broad term for an electronic or mechanical device; «aparato» is often less technical.
encryption
El cifrado protege los mensajes mientras circulan por redes públicas.
Encryption protects messages while they travel across public networks.
Usage note In computing, «cifrado» is the process or system that makes information unreadable without a key.
machine learning
El aprendizaje automático permite reconocer patrones que un programador no ha definido de antemano.
Machine learning can recognize patterns that a programmer has not defined in advance.
Usage note This is the standard Spanish equivalent of 'machine learning'; it is a branch of artificial intelligence, not a synonym for all AI.
database
La universidad creó una base de datos anónima con miles de historiales clínicos.
The university created an anonymous database containing thousands of medical records.
Usage note «Datos» remains plural inside the compound: «una base de datos / varias bases de datos».
patent
La empresa solicitó una patente antes de presentar públicamente su invento.
The company applied for a patent before publicly presenting its invention.
Usage note A «patente» grants legal protection to an invention; the usual collocations are «solicitar», «registrar» and «conceder una patente».
prototype
El primer prototipo funcionaba, aunque consumía demasiada energía para venderlo.
The first prototype worked, although it used too much energy to be sold.
Usage note A «prototipo» is an early model built to test a design before large-scale production.
sensor
Un sensor detecta cuándo la tierra está seca y activa el riego.
A sensor detects when the soil is dry and activates the irrigation system.
Usage note «Sensor» names a component that detects physical changes such as light, movement, heat, or pressure.
to calibrate
Los técnicos calibraron la balanza con una pesa cuyo valor ya conocían.
The technicians calibrated the scale using a weight whose value they already knew.
Usage note «Calibrar» means to adjust a measuring instrument against a known reference so that its readings are accurate.
to measure
El equipo midió la calidad del agua en veinte puntos del río.
The team measured the water quality at twenty points along the river.
Usage note «Medir» is irregular in several forms: «mido», «midió» and «midiendo». It can also mean to be a certain size.
to detect; to identify
El programa detectó una actividad inusual y bloqueó el acceso a la cuenta.
The program detected unusual activity and blocked access to the account.
Usage note «Detectar» implies discovering something that may not be immediately visible, such as a fault, disease, or pattern.
to simulate
Antes de construir el puente, los ingenieros simularon su respuesta ante vientos fuertes.
Before building the bridge, the engineers simulated its response to strong winds.
Usage note In technical contexts, «simular» means to model a real process; in everyday contexts it can also mean to pretend.
to program; to schedule
Han programado el robot para que se detenga si encuentra un obstáculo.
They have programmed the robot to stop if it encounters an obstacle.
Usage note Use «programar algo para que + subjunctive» for intended behavior. The verb can also mean to schedule an event.
to encrypt; to estimate at
La aplicación cifra cada archivo antes de guardarlo en la nube.
The application encrypts each file before saving it to the cloud.
Usage note With digital information, «cifrar» means to encrypt. «Cifrar algo en una cantidad» has the separate meaning of estimating its value.
to store
El sistema almacena las imágenes localmente y las borra al cabo de una semana.
The system stores the images locally and deletes them after a week.
Usage note «Almacenar» is used for both physical goods and digital data; it emphasizes keeping something for later use.
to configure; to set up
Puedes configurar el navegador para que elimine las cookies al cerrar cada sesión.
You can configure the browser to delete cookies whenever you close a session.
Usage note «Configurar algo para que + subjunctive» sets how a device or program will behave under certain conditions.
verifiable
Una afirmación científica debe apoyarse en evidencia verificable por otros equipos.
A scientific claim must be supported by evidence that other teams can verify.
Usage note «Verificable» describes a claim, fact, or result that can be independently checked against evidence.
precise; accurate
Necesitamos un diagnóstico más preciso antes de elegir el tratamiento.
We need a more accurate diagnosis before choosing the treatment.
Usage note As an adjective after a noun, «preciso» means exact or accurate. In «es preciso», it can instead mean 'it is necessary'.
interoperable
Los hospitales necesitan sistemas interoperables que puedan intercambiar historiales de forma segura.
Hospitals need interoperable systems that can exchange medical records securely.
Usage note «Interoperable» describes systems that can communicate and use one another's data without requiring the same software.
automated
El control automatizado ajusta la temperatura sin que intervenga un operario.
The automated control adjusts the temperature without an operator intervening.
Usage note «Automatizado» describes a process controlled by technology with little or no direct human intervention.
technically; from a technical standpoint
El proyecto es técnicamente viable, pero su coste sigue siendo excesivo.
The project is technically feasible, but its cost is still excessive.
Usage note «Técnicamente» can limit a judgment to technical criteria, often contrasting them with financial, legal, or practical concerns.
as a consequence of; as a result of
Como consecuencia del fallo de seguridad, la plataforma cambió el sistema de acceso.
As a result of the security failure, the platform changed its access system.
Usage note «Como consecuencia de» explicitly marks a cause and is common in formal explanations of technical events.
in the event that; if
El servidor secundario se activa en caso de que el principal deje de responder.
The secondary server is activated in the event that the main one stops responding.
Usage note «En caso de que» introduces a possible future condition and therefore requires the subjunctive.
Explain environmental pressures, practical responses, and the policies behind ecological change.
energy transition
La transición energética exige ampliar la red eléctrica, no solo instalar paneles solares.
The energy transition requires expanding the power grid, not just installing solar panels.
Usage note «Transición energética» describes the structural shift from fossil fuels toward low-carbon energy systems.
global warming
El calentamiento global está alterando la duración de las estaciones en muchas regiones.
Global warming is changing the length of the seasons in many regions.
Usage note «Calentamiento global» specifically refers to rising average temperatures; «cambio climático» includes its wider effects.
prolonged drought
La sequía prolongada obligó a limitar el riego de los cultivos.
The prolonged drought made it necessary to restrict crop irrigation.
Usage note «Sequía» is a sustained lack of rainfall; «prolongada» emphasizes that it lasts longer than usual.
soil degradation
El uso intensivo de pesticidas aceleró la degradación del suelo en la zona.
The intensive use of pesticides accelerated soil degradation in the area.
Usage note This environmental term covers the loss of soil fertility, structure, or biological quality.
circular economy
La economía circular busca que los materiales vuelvan al proceso productivo en lugar de convertirse en basura.
The circular economy aims to return materials to production instead of turning them into waste.
Usage note «Economía circular» is a model based on reducing waste through reuse, repair, and recycling.
responsible consumption
El consumo responsable también implica preguntarse quién fabricó un producto y en qué condiciones.
Responsible consumption also means asking who made a product and under what conditions.
Usage note The phrase refers to purchasing and using goods with social and environmental consequences in mind.
waste management
El municipio encargó la gestión de residuos orgánicos a una cooperativa local.
The municipality entrusted organic waste management to a local cooperative.
Usage note «Gestión de residuos» includes collection, treatment, recovery, and final disposal rather than recycling alone.
air quality
Las restricciones al tráfico mejoraron la calidad del aire cerca de las escuelas.
Traffic restrictions improved air quality near schools.
Usage note «Calidad del aire» is commonly measured in relation to pollutants such as particles and nitrogen dioxide.
environmental impact
La obra quedó suspendida hasta que se evaluara su impacto ambiental.
Construction was suspended until its environmental impact could be assessed.
Usage note Common collocations are «evaluar», «reducir» and «estudio de impacto ambiental».
climate emergency
Varias ciudades declararon la emergencia climática y adelantaron sus metas de reducción.
Several cities declared a climate emergency and brought forward their reduction targets.
Usage note «Emergencia climática» frames climate change as an urgent threat requiring immediate action.
to decarbonize
El país pretende descarbonizar el transporte público antes de 2040.
The country intends to decarbonize public transport before 2040.
Usage note «Descarbonizar» means to reduce or eliminate carbon emissions from an activity, sector, or economy.
to reforest
La asociación reforestó las laderas con árboles propios de la región.
The association reforested the hillsides with trees native to the region.
Usage note «Reforestar» means to restore tree cover; using native species is expressed with «con especies autóctonas».
to purify; to treat
La planta depura las aguas residuales antes de devolverlas al río.
The plant treats wastewater before returning it to the river.
Usage note In environmental contexts, «depurar agua» means to remove pollutants; «planta depuradora» is a treatment plant.
to dump; to discharge; to pour
La ley prohíbe verter sustancias tóxicas en el alcantarillado.
The law prohibits dumping toxic substances into the sewer system.
Usage note «Verter» changes e→ie in stressed forms. With pollutants, it means to discharge them into water or land.
to regenerate; to restore
El proyecto intenta regenerar los humedales que quedaron aislados por la carretera.
The project aims to restore wetlands that were cut off by the road.
Usage note «Regenerar» focuses on enabling a damaged ecosystem or area to recover its functions.
to adapt to change
Algunas variedades de maíz logran adaptarse al cambio de temperatura sin perder rendimiento.
Some varieties of corn manage to adapt to temperature changes without losing productivity.
Usage note «Adaptarse a» is pronominal and always keeps the preposition «a»; «al» combines «a + el».
to reduce emissions
La fábrica instaló nuevos filtros para reducir las emisiones de partículas.
The factory installed new filters to reduce particulate emissions.
Usage note This high-frequency environmental collocation uses the irregular first-person form «reduzco».
to meet environmental targets
El gobierno admite que no cumplirá los objetivos ambientales sin medidas adicionales.
The government admits that it will not meet its environmental targets without additional measures.
Usage note With targets, «cumplir» means to meet or fulfill them; Spanish does not use «encontrar» in this sense.
biodegradable
Aunque el envase sea biodegradable, no debe abandonarse en el campo.
Although the packaging is biodegradable, it should not be left in the countryside.
Usage note «Biodegradable» has one form for both genders and means that organisms can break a material down naturally.
polluting; pollutant
El ayuntamiento sustituirá las calderas más contaminantes de los edificios públicos.
The city council will replace the most polluting boilers in public buildings.
Usage note As an adjective, «contaminante» describes something that causes pollution; as a noun, it names a pollutant.
efficient
Un edificio eficiente mantiene una temperatura estable con mucho menos consumo.
An efficient building maintains a stable temperature while using much less energy.
Usage note «Eficiente» means achieving a result with limited resources; «eficaz» emphasizes achieving the intended result.
harmful; detrimental
La pesca con redes abandonadas resulta perjudicial para tortugas y aves marinas.
Fishing with abandoned nets is harmful to turtles and seabirds.
Usage note «Perjudicial para» introduces the person, species, or system harmed and is more formal than «malo para».
sustainably
La cooperativa extrae madera de manera sostenible y deja zonas enteras sin talar.
The cooperative harvests timber sustainably and leaves entire areas untouched.
Usage note This adverbial phrase describes an activity that can continue without exhausting resources or causing lasting damage.
in matters of; regarding
La región ha avanzado en materia de protección costera, pero no de transporte limpio.
The region has made progress in coastal protection, but not in clean transport.
Usage note «En materia de» is a formal way to delimit a policy area or subject under discussion.
faced with the possibility of
Ante la posibilidad de nuevas inundaciones, se reforzaron las defensas del río.
Faced with the possibility of further flooding, the river defenses were reinforced.
Usage note The phrase presents a possible risk that motivates action; use the subjunctive after «de que».
Follow legal procedures, public institutions, and debates about civic decisions and accountability.
jurisdiction
El caso corresponde a la jurisdicción laboral porque afecta a un contrato de trabajo.
The case falls under labor jurisdiction because it concerns an employment contract.
Usage note «Jurisdicción» is the legal authority of a court or the area over which that authority extends.
public prosecutor's office
La fiscalía abrió diligencias tras recibir el informe de la policía.
The public prosecutor's office opened proceedings after receiving the police report.
Usage note «Fiscalía» denotes the institution that prosecutes crimes; «fiscal» is the individual prosecutor.
defense; legal counsel
La defensa pidió que se excluyera una grabación obtenida sin autorización.
The defense asked for a recording obtained without authorization to be excluded.
Usage note In a trial, «la defensa» can mean either the legal argument or the lawyer or team representing the accused.
case file; official record
El abogado pidió acceso al expediente para revisar las declaraciones de los testigos.
The lawyer requested access to the case file to review the witness statements.
Usage note An «expediente» is the organized set of documents relating to an administrative or judicial proceeding.
appeal
La apelación se centra en varios errores cometidos durante el proceso.
The appeal focuses on several errors made during the proceedings.
Usage note «Apelación» is the review of a lower court's decision; use «en apelación» for 'on appeal'.
verdict
El jurado alcanzó un veredicto unánime después de seis horas de deliberación.
The jury reached a unanimous verdict after six hours of deliberation.
Usage note A jury issues a «veredicto»; a judge or court generally issues a «sentencia» or «fallo».
public hearing
Los vecinos expresaron sus objeciones al proyecto durante la audiencia pública.
Residents voiced their objections to the project during the public hearing.
Usage note An «audiencia pública» allows citizens or interested groups to present views before an official decision.
term of office; mandate
Durante su segundo mandato, la alcaldesa impulsó una reforma del transporte.
During her second term in office, the mayor promoted a transport reform.
Usage note «Mandato» may be the period an elected official serves or the authority voters give that official.
public administration
La administración pública debe justificar cómo utiliza los fondos que recibe.
The public administration must explain how it uses the funds it receives.
Usage note The singular refers broadly to government administration; the plural often refers to different public bodies or levels of government.
institutional transparency
Publicar las agendas oficiales es una medida básica de transparencia institucional.
Publishing official schedules is a basic measure of institutional transparency.
Usage note «Transparencia institucional» means making public bodies' decisions, procedures, and use of resources open to scrutiny.
to legislate
El parlamento decidió legislar sobre el uso comercial de datos biométricos.
Parliament decided to legislate on the commercial use of biometric data.
Usage note «Legislar sobre/en materia de» means to make laws governing a subject; people comply with laws but legislatures create them.
to charge; to formally accuse
El juez imputó al directivo un delito de falsificación documental.
The judge charged the executive with document forgery.
Usage note The legal pattern is «imputar a alguien un delito». Terminology varies by country and judicial system.
to appeal
La asociación anunció que apelaría contra la resolución que prohibía la marcha.
The association announced that it would appeal the ruling that banned the march.
Usage note In legal use, «apelar contra una resolución» means to ask a higher court to review it; «apelar a» can instead mean to invoke or call upon.
to appeal a decision
Los propietarios pueden recurrir la decisión dentro de un plazo de quince días.
The owners may appeal the decision within fifteen days.
Usage note In legal Spanish, transitive «recurrir una decisión» is standard; «recurrir a alguien/algo» means to turn to someone or something for help.
to formally notify
La oficina notificará por escrito a cada solicitante si su petición ha sido aceptada.
The office will notify each applicant in writing whether their request has been accepted.
Usage note «Notificar algo a alguien» is a formal administrative or legal communication; the spelling changes to «notifique» before e.
to comply with; to abide by
Aunque discrepa del fallo, el ministro afirmó que lo acatará.
Although he disagrees with the ruling, the minister said he will abide by it.
Usage note «Acatar» means to accept and obey an authoritative decision, order, or law, even without agreeing with it.
to breach; to fail to comply with
La empresa incumplió el contrato al compartir información confidencial con terceros.
The company breached the contract by sharing confidential information with third parties.
Usage note «Incumplir» takes a direct object such as «la ley», «una obligación» or «un contrato» and is the opposite of «cumplir».
to deliberate
El comité deliberó a puerta cerrada antes de publicar su recomendación.
The committee deliberated behind closed doors before publishing its recommendation.
Usage note «Deliberar» means to discuss and weigh options carefully before reaching a collective decision.
constitutional
El tribunal deberá decidir si la medida es compatible con el orden constitucional.
The court will have to decide whether the measure is compatible with the constitutional order.
Usage note «Constitucional» relates to a country's constitution; «declarar inconstitucional» means to rule that a measure violates it.
administrative
Un error administrativo retrasó la expedición de cientos de permisos.
An administrative error delayed the issuing of hundreds of permits.
Usage note «Administrativo» relates to official procedures or public administration and agrees with the noun.
legitimate; lawful
La protesta es legítima siempre que respete los derechos de quienes no participan.
The protest is legitimate as long as it respects the rights of those not taking part.
Usage note «Legítimo» can mean lawful, justified, or socially recognized; it is broader than strictly «legal».
discretionary
La autoridad dispone de cierto margen discrecional, pero debe explicar por qué elige una opción.
The authority has some discretionary power, but it must explain why it chooses one option.
Usage note «Discrecional» allows an authority some judgment within legal limits; it does not mean that a decision may be wholly arbitrary.
through administrative channels
La multa puede impugnarse primero por vía administrativa, sin acudir a un tribunal.
The fine can first be challenged through administrative channels, without going to court.
Usage note The phrase specifies that a procedure is handled by an administrative authority rather than a court.
under the protection or authority of
La organización solicitó los documentos al amparo de la ley de transparencia.
The organization requested the documents under the freedom of information law.
Usage note In legal language, «al amparo de» cites the law or right that provides protection or authority for an action.
except in the event that; unless
La sesión será pública, salvo en el caso de que el tribunal ordene proteger la identidad de un menor.
The hearing will be public unless the court orders a minor's identity to be protected.
Usage note This formal exception connector takes the subjunctive because it presents a possible circumstance that would alter the rule.
Analyze artistic choices, cultural reception, and the ideas that give works meaning over time.
artistic expression
El grafiti pasó de considerarse vandalismo a reconocerse como una forma de expresión artística.
Graffiti went from being considered vandalism to being recognized as a form of artistic expression.
Usage note «Expresión artística» refers to the act or form through which ideas and emotions are communicated in art.
creation; creative work
La novela mezcla investigación histórica y creación para reconstruir una vida apenas documentada.
The novel combines historical research and creative invention to reconstruct a scarcely documented life.
Usage note «Creación» can name the creative process or the resulting work; context distinguishes the two.
artistic genre
La directora combina el documental con elementos propios del género fantástico.
The director combines documentary with elements characteristic of the fantasy genre.
Usage note «Género» classifies works by shared conventions; the adjective prevents confusion with grammatical or social gender.
narrative; storytelling
La exposición propone una narrativa distinta sobre la historia industrial de la ciudad.
The exhibition offers a different narrative of the city's industrial history.
Usage note «Narrativa» may refer to prose fiction or to the way events are organized into a meaningful account.
stage production; staging
El montaje escénico sitúa la tragedia clásica en una estación de metro contemporánea.
The stage production sets the classical tragedy in a contemporary subway station.
Usage note «Montaje escénico» refers to how a theatrical work is assembled for performance, including direction, space, lighting, and movement.
critical reception
La recepción crítica fue fría al principio, pero la película ganó prestigio con los años.
The critical reception was cool at first, but the film gained prestige over the years.
Usage note «Recepción crítica» describes how professional critics respond to a work, as distinct from audience popularity.
aesthetic; aesthetics
La estética minimalista del edificio contrasta con la ornamentación de las casas vecinas.
The building's minimalist aesthetic contrasts with the ornamentation of the neighboring houses.
Usage note «Estética» can mean a theory of beauty or the recognizable visual style of a work, artist, or period.
avant-garde; forefront
En los años veinte, aquella revista reunió a figuras de la vanguardia latinoamericana.
In the 1920s, that magazine brought together figures from the Latin American avant-garde.
Usage note In culture, «la vanguardia» refers to movements that break with established artistic conventions.
repertoire
La orquesta amplió su repertorio con obras de compositoras que rara vez se interpretaban.
The orchestra expanded its repertoire with works by women composers that were rarely performed.
Usage note «Repertorio» is the set of works that a performer or company is prepared to present; «ampliar el repertorio» is a common collocation.
continued relevance; validity
La vigencia de la obra se debe a que plantea conflictos que aún reconocemos.
The work remains relevant because it presents conflicts we still recognize.
Usage note For a cultural work, «vigencia» means continued relevance; for a law, it refers to being in force.
to reinterpret
La compañía reinterpreta el mito desde la perspectiva del personaje secundario.
The company reinterprets the myth from the secondary character's perspective.
Usage note «Reinterpretar» means to give existing material a new meaning or approach, not merely to reproduce it.
to capture; to express concretely
La fotógrafa plasmó en sus retratos la soledad de quienes acababan de emigrar.
In her portraits, the photographer captured the loneliness of people who had recently emigrated.
Usage note «Plasmar algo en una obra» means to give an idea, feeling, or experience a concrete artistic form.
to address a subject
La serie aborda el tema de la memoria sin ofrecer respuestas sencillas.
The series addresses the subject of memory without offering simple answers.
Usage note In analytical contexts, «abordar un tema» means to deal with or examine it; «abordar» also means to board a vehicle.
to allude to; to refer to
El título alude a un verso de Sor Juana que reaparece al final del ensayo.
The title alludes to a line by Sor Juana that reappears at the end of the essay.
Usage note «Aludir» always takes «a» and refers indirectly to a person, work, or idea rather than naming it explicitly.
to conceive; to envision
El arquitecto concibió el museo como un recorrido gradual de la oscuridad a la luz.
The architect conceived the museum as a gradual journey from darkness to light.
Usage note «Concebir algo como» presents the original concept or vision behind a work; the verb changes e→i in several forms.
to recreate; to evoke anew
El vestuario recrea la época sin copiar exactamente las prendas conservadas.
The costumes recreate the period without exactly copying the surviving garments.
Usage note «Recrear» means to create a representation of something from another time or context; «recrearse» has different meanings.
to endure; to last
Sus canciones han perdurado porque cada generación encuentra algo propio en ellas.
Her songs have endured because each generation finds something of its own in them.
Usage note «Perdurar» emphasizes continuing to exist or remain influential over a long period.
to become established; to gain acclaim
La escritora se consagró con una novela que obtuvo varios premios internacionales.
The writer established her reputation with a novel that won several international awards.
Usage note For an artist, «consagrarse» means to achieve lasting public or critical recognition; it is pronominal.
innovative
El montaje fue innovador no por la tecnología, sino por la participación del público.
The production was innovative not because of the technology, but because of audience participation.
Usage note «Innovador» describes something that introduces a genuinely new method, form, or idea.
transgressive; boundary-breaking
Lo que resultó transgresor en 1975 puede parecer convencional al público actual.
What was transgressive in 1975 may seem conventional to today's audience.
Usage note In cultural criticism, «transgresor» describes a work that deliberately challenges accepted norms or boundaries.
timeless
La escenografía evita referencias históricas para dar al conflicto un carácter atemporal.
The set avoids historical references to give the conflict a timeless quality.
Usage note «Atemporal» has one form for both genders and describes something not tied to a specific historical period.
representative; characteristic
Este cuadro es representativo de la etapa en que el pintor experimentaba con formas geométricas.
This painting is representative of the period when the artist was experimenting with geometric forms.
Usage note «Representativo de» identifies a work as characteristic of a movement, period, or artist's development.
deliberately
El narrador oculta deliberadamente la edad del protagonista hasta el último capítulo.
The narrator deliberately conceals the protagonist's age until the final chapter.
Usage note «Deliberadamente» signals that an artistic or communicative choice is intentional rather than accidental.
beyond
Más allá de su belleza visual, el mural denuncia el desplazamiento de la comunidad.
Beyond its visual beauty, the mural denounces the displacement of the community.
Usage note «Más allá de» extends an analysis past an obvious aspect and often introduces a deeper interpretation.
around; concerning
El festival organiza varios debates en torno a la relación entre arte y tecnología.
The festival is organizing several debates around the relationship between art and technology.
Usage note In abstract contexts, «en torno a» means concerning or centered on a subject, not physical movement around it.